Opportunities and challenges faced by multi-national companies in Essay

Opportunities and challenges faced by multi-national companies in setting an appropriate transfer price - Essay Example Nonetheless, MNEs enjoy substantial discretion in a way that they can structure their business operation models and set their internal trading terms (Runkel 2012). For this reason, the corporations can allocate some of the profits they have made to the member groups in low-tax areas without the need to move corresponding economic activity, risks, assets, and functions. MNEs have challenges and opportunities that face them, this paper will explore some of these. In most cases, group members have problems facing them whenever they want to set appropriate price for intra-group transactions. Sometimes this happens even when there are no motives to set prices. MNEs are very complex in their operations (Chan 2015). Things happen to become even more intricate in the fact that good number of transactions cannot compare directly to transactions the unrelated parties have undertaken. This makes it very difficult for MNEs to comply with transfer pricing rules. The organizational structure of MNCs is influenced by several factors. Geographical dispersion remains one of these factors (Gallemore&Labro 2014). Geographical dispersion is essentially the extent related to the cost of information flow within an enterprise and how the flow affects the corporate performance. Boundaries, indeed, may influence this flow between foreign subsidiaries and headquarters in spite of information flow being majorly done through the internet. The result, which is one of the challenges, is an increase of costs incurred in transferring the information and also valuation discount. The geographical dispersion also impacts on critical areas such as the organizational structures of the firm whereby it increases its complexity. The reason is if the headquarters is far from their business units, then it become costly to transfer information. That also limits the transfer of goods and services from the units and becomes even harder to carry out transfer pricing. There lacks a functioning

SCM PepsiCo Essay Example for Free

SCM PepsiCo Essay The Beverage Industry is a mature sector and includes companies that market nonalcoholic and alcoholic items. Since growth opportunities are few compared to existing business, many members of the industry endeavor to diversify their offerings to better compete and gain share. Too, they may pursue lucrative distribution arrangements and/or acquisitions to expand their operations, product portfolios, and geographic reach. Most equities in this group are suitable for conservative investors. The largest companies offer reliable dividends, with regular increases, and above-average Stock Price Stability. There are a few selections for those that are more venturesome. Such issues might serve a particular market niche, for example, energy drinks or developing overseas markets. Generally, the group turns in a steady performance throughout the business cycle, but it will generally suffer in the most stressful of economic times PepsiCo is one of the largest food and beverage companies in the world. Its products include a variety of salty, sweet, and grain-based snacks as well as Csds and non-Csds. the company is responsible for the manufacturing, marketing, and sales of these goods. It has 18 brands in its portfolio and is headquartered in New York. PepsiCo has two divisions: bottle soft drinks and juice segment. In India the consumption proportion of both divisions are good as compare to the major competitor. PepsiCo have invested around 12000 crore in India and has the most of the market share in India in beverages industry. Mr. Anil R the Senior Manager of the organized trade handles the major area of Bangalore. His roles are to see the proper working in organized trade and to bring new business. OT has major area like restaurants, pubs, Cineplex entertainment, tourist area, and other major area of people’s needs. He was frustrated by the sales failure which done by PSR. Mr. Anil R, has noticed in the surprised visit of 20 outlets across the Bangalore is that the regulatory of the pre sales executive is not regular and they are not taking up the order from the customers time to time, not listing up the complaint of the customer which they are facing and above that they are not meeting up the target which they are proposed. Also what Anil found that the VISI cooler is also misused by the costumer, they put different stuffs in the costumer with other company beverages bottle. Anil found that these small looking issues have a big failure in future because it not only looses the costumer but also the revenue will decrease and for this he got to answer his highest authority. Taking the entire major problem on account and to the consideration Anil has started the training process and much needed to his PSR Mr. Prajapati and to Mr. Shail Sharma. The 7 days training consists of communication skills, behavioral skills about the product with clear detail and other major attributes regarding customer satisfaction. Anil only emphases on the customer satisfaction, he not only instructed his PSR about the regulatory visits to take the order but also he instructed about the PepsiCo commitment towards the costumer and about VISI cooler he also instructed. For all these he has given stick instruction for his PSR to follow up the good work if got failure may lose the job. Upon assuming the job, Anil does a Market research and compared the report on customer reaction. He discovered that Prajapati was well above the average for its costumer. In other words, Prajapati maintain the good relations with its costumer. On the other Shail stills lagging behind the performance. Anil’s conclusion is that Prajapati is performing well above the average level but stills it’s not the up to the company’s point of view. And Shail still face the failure. He fails to appreciate the importance of relationship. At his first sales meeting as senior manager Anil went over the financial data that demonstrated how much more expensive is to acquire new costumers than its current ones but we are losing even our existing once. Prajapati has 2 years of work experience in PepsiCo whereas Shail has 4 years of experience in the PepsiCo as PSR. Questions: 1 What course of action should Anil follow regarding PSR working Condition? 2 Should he hire new PSR? 3 Do you think Anil doing a good work to give training program?

Self-Analysis Essay -- Essays Papers

Self-Analysis Before taking this course my writing styles and habits were very different. I was the typical procrastinator because I would wait until the night before a paper was due to start it. This did not allow me enough time to properly proofread everything, which resulted in getting points deducted for simple grammatical errors that could have been avoided if I would have had the time to proofread. My writing styles have many strengths and weaknesses and I have been able to improve my writing because of them. I have learned from my strengths and weaknesses how to become a better writer. In my writing, I have many strengths, some that which I have developed through this course and some that I already had. Before this class, I was able to pick out good content for my papers and concentrate on including the most important material. Also before this course I was able to develop paragraphs well. I was able to have good structure and format within my paragraphs. I was also able to think of the best order for them to go in so that the paper would flow well. However aft...

Death Penalty Essay -- essays research papers

Death Penalty: Barbaric or Justice?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Julian Ptachin was only 14 years old in October 1997 when a drunk driver smashed into his parents van. His Dad, a physician, had to hold Julian while he died on the side of the road. The drunk driver was a three-timed convicted, repeat offender. He was convicted of second-degree murder and was ordered to serve eight years in jail. Doesn’t something seem wrong with this picture? Repeat crime convicts are running down the streets rapid: endangering our children, our loved ones, and even us.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What can us, as citizens, do to stop these heinous crimes? The Death Penalty. The Death Penalty has been around for several hundred years. One of the first people to first use the death penalty was the Babylonians who would use the system of â€Å"an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth.†(Matthew 5:38, KJV) Throughout this reign the Babylonians were very successful and were considered very strong when it came to war tactics. In ancient times there was no repeat offenders, no repeated crimes, and everybody knew what they had to do to stay alive.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Today repeat offenders are walking our streets that we walk on everyday. Many newspapers put out names of sexual offenders who are let out on bail, but yet receive lots of negative feedback for the use of privacy. The American people should have a right to know who the sex offenders are and where i...

Coral Reef and Australia

The great outback! Hey mate! Ever wanted to take an adventurous trip somewhere, but you’re not sure where? Well Australia would be the perfect place to start! Three reasons why Australia should be the first place you visit are for starters, the amazing scenery and beauty of the country, Secondly the exquisite variety of food, and lastly, the unique culture. Australia has one of the most breath taking sceneries in the world, all the way from the Great Barrier Reef to the city of Melbourne.The Great Barrier Reef is known for being the largest coral reef in the world; it is so incredibly vast that it can even be seen all the way from outer space. It is also unbelievably beautiful. Other beautiful places to visit in Australia are the Sydney harbor, which was the first settlement in Australia and you can also find the iconic Sydney opera house there, the beautiful island of Tasmania which is the most mountainous region of Australia and is dotted with beautiful flowing rivers and wa terfalls, and also another iconic symbol of Australia the Uluru rock, this rock is famed for its amazing color changes as the sun sets and rises.Australia has so many beautiful sights to visit, which is one fantastic reason to visit Australia. Australian cuisine can vary from your common everyday food that we have here in America, to all kinds of interesting and exotic foods native to Australia. The term â€Å"bush tucker† is used to describe a certain type of cuisine in Australia, that is made up of the native foods in Australia, such as kangaroo, emu, or even crocodile. A lot of foods in Australia contain seafood, as Australia is the third largest fishing zone in the world.Some iconic foods of Australia are, for one, the Chiko roll, a deep-fried savory roll that is also similar to a spring roll. Other iconic foods are vegemite, macadamia nuts, violet crumble, cherry ripe Jaffa’s, and many other different foods. The food in Australia is often described as exotic and d elicious. This stimulating food variety is just another great reason why Australia should be at the top on your list of places to visit. The culture in Australia is very interesting and fun, especially if you’re into surfing and water sports, which are very big in Australia, along with other sports such as rugby, cricket, and soccer.Australia is also big into country music, which may come as a surprise to some people, but some great country singers have come from Australia such as Keith Urban. The common apparel in Australia is called surf wear or bush wear, and is very popular among many of the Australian people. As far as religion goes, Australia has no official one, but according to the Australian census, most people are either Christian or irreligious. Most of the Christian are either Roman Catholic, Anglican, or apart of the uniting church.As you now know, Australia has a very interesting and diverse culture, which is the last reason why you should make visiting Australi a a priority. In conclusion, Australia is stunningly gorgeous and has many captivating sights and historical scenery to visit while you’re there. It also has a very unique and beloved cuisine that is unlike any other in the world and accordingly very great tasting. Lastly, the variety of culture is just amazing and so fascinating. These are the three main reasons why your next vacation should be a trip to the great outback! See you ther!

Study of the mind essays

Study of the mind essays Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and cognition. Within the study of psychology there are several approaches that are used in order to understand the study of behavior, cognition and its theories such as the humanistic and socioculture approaches which were developed as a feedback to the limitations of psychodynamic theories when Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, and later Jean Piaget and Lev Vigotsky found that psychoanalysis could not be used to explain the phenomena of human behavior and mental development. The evolution of new approaches was related to the positive accepting of mental development, to the critique and the rejection of determinism of psychodynamic theories. The humanistic and socioculture approaches to psychology have its own merits and demerits. In this concise review we will compare and contrast the humanistic approach where psychologist use the approach to stress that people are unique and complex organisms and emphasize that each person has a capacit y to his or hers maximum potential and the socioculture approach which emphasizes the importance of culture, gender and ethnicity in understanding how we think, feel and act (Pettijohn T. 1998). The sharpest distinction of the humanistic approach is the emphasis on subjective meaning and the key idea of self-actualization. Humanistic psychologists believe that behavior is primarily determined by personal perception and that the individuals have intrinsic motivation to perform their human potential. Some authors (Doi A., Ikemi A. (2003)) wrote that the central issue in humanistic psychology is the feeling process which occurs in interaction. Today the humanistic approach is used widely in psychology, pedagogic and sociology. If we use the database ERIC (Education Resources Information Center) one will retrieve nearly 1500 publications (439 of the articles in the professional journals) for the keywords humanistic AND approach&...

Report on Amberg, Germany

Report on Amberg, Germany The city that I chose to do this project on is Amberg, Germany. I chose this city because I am interested in rural Germany. I want to learn about Amberg's past and the architectural buildings and their history.PopulationThe population of Amberg is currently 44 112 people.LocationAmberg is situated on the edge of the Franconian Jura on the banks of the Vils River. It is near NÂÆ'Â ¼rnberg and Bayreuth in eastern Germany near the Czech Republic. Its longitude is 11.86222 and its latitude is 49.44139.Geographical features and waterwaysThe town consists of both an inner "old town" and the new town surrounding it. From above, the inner town looks like a lopsided circle or an egg. The Vils River runs directly through the town and creates a place for the "town spectacles".Symbol of city and significanceThe symbol of Amberg is the "town spectacles", a bridge over the Vils River which has two semicircles and the water reflects these semicircles to create the image of two full circles.Amberg -SulzbachThis forms the shape of glasses or spectacles, hence the name "town spectacles".Crest of city and significanceThe crest of Amberg is checkered diagonally with alternating blue and white colours on the top. The bottom half has a gold lion surrounded by black. This crest was in possession of the Wittelsbach family and made in the fourteenth century.Historical FeaturesThe city was first mentioned in 1034 by the name of Ammenberg. The town was officially founded in 1269 by the Wittelsbach dynasty.Important EventsIn 1269 the town became part of Bamberg. Bamberg was a subordinate of the Wittelsbach dynasty which ruled Bavaria. Also in 1269, the "Old Fortress" was built in the name of Duke Ludwig II.In 1633 the plague raged...

Find Out What the Word Punic Means

Find Out What the Word Punic Means Basically, Punic refers to the Punic people, i.e., the Phoenicians. It is an ethnic label. The English term Punic comes from the Latin Poenus. Should we be using the term Carthaginian (a civic label referring to the city of North Africa the Romans called ​Carthago) or Punic when referring to the people of northern Africa fighting in the wars with Rome known as the Punic Wars, since Punic can refer to cities elsewhere, like Utica? Here are two articles that elaborate this confusion and may help you, too: Poenus Plane Est - But Who Were the Punickes?Jonathan R. W. PragPapers of the British School at Rome, Vol. 74, (2006), pp. 1-37The Use of Poenus and Carthaginiensis in Early Latin Literature,George Fredric FrankoClassical Philology, Vol. 89, No. 2 (Apr., 1994), pp. 153-158 The Greek term for Punic is ÃŽ ¦ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ¯ÃŽ ºÃŽ µÃâ€š Phoenikes (Phoenix); whence, Poenus. The Greeks did not distinguish between western and eastern Phoenicians, but the Romans did once those western Phoenicians in Carthage started to compete with the Romans. Phoenicians in the period from 1200 (dates, as on most pages of this site, are B.C./B.C.E.) until the conquest by Alexander the Great in 333, lived along the Levantine coastline (and so, they would be considered eastern Phoenicians). The Greek term for all the Semitic Levantine peoples was ÃŽ ¦ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ¯ÃŽ ºÃŽ µÃâ€š Phoenikes. After the Phoenician diaspora, Phoenician was used to refer to Phoenician people living west of Greece. Phoenician was not, in general, users of the western area until the Carthaginians came to power (mid-6th century). The term Phoenicio-Punic is sometimes used for the areas of Spain, Malta, Sicily, Sardinia, and Italy, where there was a Phoenician presence (this would be the western Phoenicians). Carthaginian is used specifically for Phoenicians who lived in Carthage. The Latin designation, without value-added content, is Carthaginiensis or Afer since Carthage was in northern Africa. Carthage and African are the geographic or civic designations. Prag writes: The basis of the terminological problem is that, if Punic replaces Phoenician as the general term for the western Mediterranean subsequent to the mid-sixth century, then that which is Carthaginian is Punic, but that which is Punic is not necessarily Carthaginian (and ultimately all is still Phoenician). In the ancient world, the Phoenicians were notorious for their trickiness, as is shown in the expression from Livy 21.4.9 about Hannibal: perfidia plus quam punica (treachery more than Punic).

Get a Life...and a Career Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Get a Life...and a Career - Essay Example Career planning is an important stage in life of every high school student, and it usually starts from setting development goals and self assessment. Speaking about myself, my possible future career is teaching in college or university. As "education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world" (Dunkan), I would like to make my own contribution to giving the knowledge and skills to other people, who will use them to create their own lives and careers. Besides, the profession coincides with my personal characteristics, as I like to get acquainted with other people, communicate with them, be with them, be aware of what is happening in the world, ask and answer the questions. In addition, I like to look for new materials, read interesting books and learn news on different topics, which is important, if I want to write my PhD dissertation and keep my lectures up-to-date with the changes in the world. I understand that to become a good professor, I need to work hard and spend a lot of time, before I gain experience and knowledge to teach. However, the time spent for preparations will pay off in future. And there is a place for further development in the career, as I may become engaged in research work, take part in conferences, exchange programs, trainings, write and publish books. My future goals and plans are the following. During the first 10 years I will be working hard on finishing a college, taking part in students exchange programs, entering a post-graduate course, writing a dissertation, starting my research work, establishing contacts with other researchers in my field of knowledge, and starting to work. In 20 years I see myself as an Associate Professor of a University, teaching several courses to students. I take part in different conferences, publish articles, and cooperate with foreign professors and researchers. This is also the time, when I want to settle down

Accounting - Cash and Accrual Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Accounting - Cash and Accrual - Essay Example There are two basic systems that can be utilized to run an accounting information system. The two accounting systems are cash and accrual basis accounting. This report analyses, compares and contrasts the two accounting systems that can utilized by an accountant in the industry. The cash basis accounting system recognizes revenues when cash is received, and expenses when cash is disbursed (Weygandt & Kieso & Kimmel, 2002, p.89). Utilizing a cash basis system provides the business with greater control over its cash account and up to the minute tracking of the cash position of the firm. The system is easier to implement due to simplicity and does not have to follow the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). Since cash basis accounting is not in accordance with GAAP this implies that a person that is not an accountant or has any type of accounting training run such a system. A small business owner who can not afford the services of an accountant may be persuaded to run his numbers based on a cash basis system since he can do all the accounting work himself. A good example of a business that is likely to utilize a cash basis accounting system is the owner of a hot dog stand. This individual has a one person operation in which the business is constantly dealing with small cash transactions. The person on a weekly basis performs a materials purchase which is financed with the cash collection of the week. Both the revenues and expense accounts of the business owner are dominated by cash transactions. A cash basis accounting system has its advantages but also imposes a variety of problems. If a company utilizes such a system at the end of the accounting cycle the financial statements that are prepared will lead to misleading information. The reason that the financial statements have misleading information is that the system fails to record revenues that has been earned, but not yet received. Other problems arise from the fact that expenses may not match

The nature of organizations and the environment Essay

The nature of organizations and the environment - Essay Example Here are some of the factors that can undermine the operations of any international firm. As we all know that communication is as important for any business as finance or profit returns. Miscommunication can devastate any firm slowly but surely. Here are few communication problems in a global firm. This problem arises when managers see things differently (according to his own thinking and upbringing) and things are quite different in reality. So, it can push managers to act little wrongly in international environment to which they are unaware of. This whole set up of looking at things differently or if we can put it correctly through his own perception can make things haywire. In this problem, managers assume things relying on the information which they have beforehand or which they learn in their own business environment. For example, Americans generally think or assume that British are generally bull-headed people. This is their general perception. But, working in an international environment, these kinds of set assumptions can create great grievances. You have to deal with every set of people after meeting them, not just by your own stereotype assumptions. It is utterly wrong and unhealthy for an organization. Ethnocentrism refers to the sense of superiority that members of a particular culture have. The Russians generally claims that Americans consider themselves 'always right' kind of people. This behavior can shut down all possible communicative avenues and even create hostility and grudge against each other. In international environment, managers need to work more in an open manner. Role of power distance: This problem lies in the sphere of motivation. All cultures have different opinions about role of power in certain cultures. In some cultures, people like to be ordered, whereas, few cultures consider it very odd to behave like a boss. It can create hell of a problem for managers, because if manager works in a little authoritarian style and that consider very ineffective in that particular region, then manager needs to bring a change in his style of operating with his colleagues. For example, people in United States, Britain, and Scandinavian find it very tough to adjust with manager who works like a typical boss. Whereas, people in Indians, Mexicans, Japanese and South Koreans find it quite normal to work in this of environment.Leadership expert Warren Bennis stated somewhere that," Given the nature and constancy of change and the transnational challenges facing American business leadership, the key to making the right choices will come from understanding and embodying the leadersh ip qualities necessary to succeed in the volatile and mercurial global economy". The role of leadership in an international environment is extremely important in more of the pronounced terms. Across cultures, managers need to change some sound differences in their behavior to make it more effective and feasible. Managers in alien atmosphere need to be more liberal and more open for all kind of options. Personal values: Managers need to inculcate few major changes in their personal values to

Psychotherapies Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 9000 words

Psychotherapies - Thesis Example This is based on the fact that interactions in nature can help a person become rooted in their own ancestral, biological, innate self. A closer relationship with the natural world is like "coming home," and such interaction deconstructs the industrial and cultural self and brings the individual back to a closer understanding of essentials. People's desire for nature is linked not only to their direct exploitation of the environment, but also to the influence of the natural world on our emotions and spiritual predisposition. Edward Wilson (1984) suggested that human identity and progress depend on the relationship with nature. The hypothesis that he asserted is that the human propensity to affiliate with non -human living organisms is genetically based. Wilson's work in the field of biophilia provides a framework by which a new discipline can be mapped towards a more thorough understanding of the human relationship with nature. The background of ecotherapy is linked to theorists that include Carl Jung and reflect the variety of different types of ecotherapy and perceptions about their value. While there has been a considerable amount of research into ecotherapy and its impacts, the value of specific methods for ecotherapy has been at the center of debates in the therapeutic community. For example, supporters of human-pet therapies maintain that this method is valuable in bringing an individual into closer understanding of the natural world and the interrelation between man and animal. Critics, though, argue that humans sometimes seek out pets and humanize them, creating compliant little "people" instead of creating a relationship with nature (June McNicholas, et al. 2005; James Serpell, 2000). As a result, assessments of the existing methods for ecotherapy should be related through a view of the current literature, and should reflect both the supporters and critics of the different ecotherapy options. Severe environmental issues such as deforestation, tacitly suggest that we are losing our relationship with nature. In addition, oppressive economic conditions predispose people to be more susceptible to all sorts of distresses. Therefore, it will be argued in this paper that people must strengthen their relationship with nature and that this connection should be fully integrated as a therapeutic practice. The fundamental concept of ecotherapy and its therapeutic power states that in order for us to heal ourselves and reconnect to our inner voice, we have to reconnect to nature (Howard Clinebell, 1996).Establish the thesis statement. It is the primary thesis of this paper that people have the potential to overcome their personal distress. What is more, they can dissolve the defensive separation between spirit, mind, and body through the mutual connection between their inner values and the environment. Therefore, physical healing, psychological problem solving, and spiritual awareness can unite under one experience. Sophia Adamson and Ralph Metzner (1988) suggested that the Western societies usually deal with their psychological problems in a rational and socially beneficial way and stated that the traditional procedure follows a medical model that includes drug treatments administered on a regular schedule. The bond between doctor and patient is isolated and restricted.

Marketing strategies Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Marketing strategies - Case Study Example Equal also used pricing strategies to market its products. It has been reported that Equal priced its product 3 times more than its competitors in order to recover the higher branding cost it incurred as well as to attract customers through unique pricing strategies (Buss, p.193). On the contrary, Sweet’n Low’s utilize advertisement strategies brand positioning marketing strategies. It can be observed that Sweet’n Low’s had created a unique brand image before and after the introduction of Equal. In addition, Sweet’n Low’s utilized promotion-marketing strategies. It has been reported that Sweet’n Low’s had spend 5 million on adverting. However, Sweet’n Low’s relied heavily on brand positioning strategies to market its products. 2. The product-line branding strategies of Cumberland and Nutra Sweet in 1990’s may be described in various ways. It can be observed that Cumberland used Brand extension strategy by launching a new multipurpose product called Sweet One. This product could be used as both a baking and a sweetener. In addition, Cumberland used the blue color similar to the one used by Nutra Sweet to package its products. On the other hand, Nutra Sweet used extended product-line branding strategies by maintaining the existing product and making additional innovations to attract more consumers (Buss, p.193). 3. (a). Based on the evidence provided, I think the market of tabletop artificial sweetener is at maturity stage in the product life cycle. This is because at this stage a promotion may be required to help the product to become differentiated from those of other competitors. Moreover, additional features may be added to enhance the product quality and differentiate it from that offered by the competitors in the market. In addition, the company is should lower the prices of its products to attract more customers. Further, the company is encouraged to utilize both intensive and

Psychotherapies Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 9000 words

Psychotherapies - Thesis Example This is based on the fact that interactions in nature can help a person become rooted in their own ancestral, biological, innate self. A closer relationship with the natural world is like "coming home," and such interaction deconstructs the industrial and cultural self and brings the individual back to a closer understanding of essentials. People's desire for nature is linked not only to their direct exploitation of the environment, but also to the influence of the natural world on our emotions and spiritual predisposition. Edward Wilson (1984) suggested that human identity and progress depend on the relationship with nature. The hypothesis that he asserted is that the human propensity to affiliate with non -human living organisms is genetically based. Wilson's work in the field of biophilia provides a framework by which a new discipline can be mapped towards a more thorough understanding of the human relationship with nature. The background of ecotherapy is linked to theorists that include Carl Jung and reflect the variety of different types of ecotherapy and perceptions about their value. While there has been a considerable amount of research into ecotherapy and its impacts, the value of specific methods for ecotherapy has been at the center of debates in the therapeutic community. For example, supporters of human-pet therapies maintain that this method is valuable in bringing an individual into closer understanding of the natural world and the interrelation between man and animal. Critics, though, argue that humans sometimes seek out pets and humanize them, creating compliant little "people" instead of creating a relationship with nature (June McNicholas, et al. 2005; James Serpell, 2000). As a result, assessments of the existing methods for ecotherapy should be related through a view of the current literature, and should reflect both the supporters and critics of the different ecotherapy options. Severe environmental issues such as deforestation, tacitly suggest that we are losing our relationship with nature. In addition, oppressive economic conditions predispose people to be more susceptible to all sorts of distresses. Therefore, it will be argued in this paper that people must strengthen their relationship with nature and that this connection should be fully integrated as a therapeutic practice. The fundamental concept of ecotherapy and its therapeutic power states that in order for us to heal ourselves and reconnect to our inner voice, we have to reconnect to nature (Howard Clinebell, 1996).Establish the thesis statement. It is the primary thesis of this paper that people have the potential to overcome their personal distress. What is more, they can dissolve the defensive separation between spirit, mind, and body through the mutual connection between their inner values and the environment. Therefore, physical healing, psychological problem solving, and spiritual awareness can unite under one experience. Sophia Adamson and Ralph Metzner (1988) suggested that the Western societies usually deal with their psychological problems in a rational and socially beneficial way and stated that the traditional procedure follows a medical model that includes drug treatments administered on a regular schedule. The bond between doctor and patient is isolated and restricted.

Assess the contribution of Buffalo Bill to the making of the mythic Essay

Assess the contribution of Buffalo Bill to the making of the mythic West - Essay Example The myths are now history, thus transforming the nature of a time and place through the use of celebrity and propaganda. Modern culture is now built on the myths that are created through textual histories that are exaggerated and changed to support the needs of the immediate culture in creating heroes, villains, and a story to fill the spaces within the history of mankind. Early Life William Frederick Cody was born on February 26 1846 to Mary Ann and Isaac Cody in the county of Scott in Iowa. Mary Ann and Isaac Cody had traveled to Iowa as pioneers, part of the group of people who were expanding the territories in North America towards the West. In his autobiography, Cody (1978, p. 17) writes that he was the fourth child of eight children in the Cody family. When he was born, he and his family lived on a farm that they had given a Native American name, Napsinekee Place, but when he was around the age of seven he was moved to the small town of LeClair, Iowa where he had an idyllic chi ldhood. Cody (1978, p. 28) describes his childhood as an adventure, one where he stole apples from the neighbors orchard with the vigilance of the guard dog always his nemesis. He swam in the Mississippi River and took boats out on the water, although the boats were also not always his to take. He reports the story of getting stuck out in the middle of the river, he and a childhood friend having lost the oars, only to be discovered from having stolen the boat from the dock. His descriptions of the events of the his early life describe him as a child who sought adventure and wanted to experience everything, all of the thrills that would come from challenging his boundaries and the elements of his natural world. After his family made a brief and failed attempt to move to California, they moved to Walnut Grove Farm where Cody learned to trap and hunt. He became good with horses, but one event stuck out in his childhood that brought him great sorrow and involved a horse accident. His ol der brother, Samuel, rode out with Cody into town and decided to take a mare that he had been warned not to ride. Samuel, with Cody in his company on another horse, took the mare to the school where he decided to show off, but the horse reared up and then fell upon him, giving Samuel fatal injuries that took his life the next day (Cody 1978, p. 20). Some elements of this event may have contributed to the nature within Cody that led him to his celebrity. Cody’s father was involved in politics, giving him a public persona (Cody 1978, p. 19). So Cody was not unfamiliar with the concept of being known. Samuel had been a popular young boy, his gregarious personality leading the community to give him a great deal of adoration. When he died, the community felt the pain of his passing, thus even in his grief, it is possible that William saw that the effects of celebrity was the appreciation and emotional connection of a large number of people. That Cody sought fame may be traced to t his event as he recorded it in his autobiography as being transformative in his life. The second event in Cody’s life where fame and death were connected came with the stabbing and eventual death of his father. Cody’s family was moved from the farm in Iowa to Kansas, a state that was heavily involved in a debate whether to allow slavery within its borders. His father, involved in polit

American Literature Questions Essay Example for Free

American Literature Questions Essay 21. The leader of the Irish National Theater Movement in the early 20th century was ______. A. W. B. Yeats B. Lady Gregory C. J. M. Synge D. John Galworthy 22. T. S. Eliots most popular verse play is ______. A. Murder in the Cathedral B. The Cocktail Party C. The Family Reunion D. The Waste Land 23. The American writer ______ was awarded the Nobel Prize for the anti-racist In- truder in the Dust in 1950. A. Ernest Hemingway B. Gertrude Stein C. William Faulkner D. T. S. Eliot 24. Hemingways second big success is ______ , which wrote the epitaph to a decade and to the whole generation in the 1920s, in order to tell us a story about the tragic love affair of a wounded American soldier with a British nurse. A. For Whom the Bell Tolls B. A Farewell to Arms C. The Sun Also Rises D. The Old Man and the Sea 25. With the publication of ______ , Dreiser was launching himself upon a long career that would ultimately make him one of the most significant American writers of the school later known as literary naturalism. A. Sister Carrie B. The Titan C. The Genius D. The Stoic. 26. Henry James is generally regarded as the forerunner of the 20th -century â€Å"stream -of-consciousness†novels and the founder of ______. A. neoclassicism B. psychological realism C. psychoanalytical criticism D. surrealism 27. In 1849, Herman Melville published ______ ,a semi-autobiographical novel, con- cerning the sufferings of a genteel youth among brutal sailors. A. Omoo B. Mardi C. Redburn D. Typee 28. As a sequel to The Adventures of Tom Sawyer,______ marks the climax of Mark Twains literary activity. A. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn B. Life on the Mississippi C. The Gilded Age D. Roughing It 29. Realism was a reaction against ______ or a move away from the bias towards romance and self- creating fictions, and paved the way to Modernism. A. Romanticism B. Rationalism C. Post-modernism D. Cynicism 30. When World War II broke out,______ began working for the Italian government, engaged in some radio broadcasts of anti- Semitism and pro- Fascism. A. Ezra Pound B. T. S. Eliot C. Henry James D. Robert Frost 31. In 1915 ______ became a naturalized British citizen, largely in protest against Americas failure to join England in the First World War. A. Henry James B. T. S. Eliot. C. W. D. Howells D. Ezra Pound 32. What Whitman prefers for his new subject and new poetic feelings is â€Å"______ ,† that is, poetry without a fixed beat or regular rhyme scheme. A. blank verse B. free rhythm C. balanced structure D. free verse 33. The American woman poet ______ wanted to live simply as a complete independent being, and so she did, as a spinster. A. Emily Shaw B. Anna Dickinson C. Emily Dickinson D. Anne Bret 34. The Birthmark drives home symbolically ______ point that evil is a mans birthmark, something he was born with. A. Whitmans B. Melvilles C. Hawthornes D. Emersons 35. The Financier ,The Titan and The Stoic written by ______ are called his â€Å"Trilogy of Desire†. A. Henry James B. Theodore Dreiser C. Mark Twain D. Herman Melville 36. Disregarding grammar and punctuation,______ always used â€Å"i† instead of â€Å"I† in his poems to show his protest against self-importance. A. Wallace Stevens B. Ezra Pound C. Robert Frost D. E. E. Cummings 37. Though Robert Frost is generally considered a regional poet whose subject matters mainly focus on the landscape and people in ______ , he wrote many poems that investigate the basic themes of mans life in his long poetic career. A. the west B. the south C. New England D. Alaska 38. Most critics have agreed that Fitzgerald is both an insider and an outsider of ______ with a double vision. A. the Gilded Age B. the Rational Age C. the Jazz Age D. the Magic Age 39. In the American Romantic writings,______ came to function almost as a dramatic character that symbolized moral law. A. fire B. water C. trees D. wilderness 40. The desire for an escape from society and a return to ______ became a permanent convention of the American literature. A. the family life B. nature C. the ancient time D. fantasy of love 21. The Renaissance marks a transition from ______ to the modern world. A. the old English B. the medieval C. the feudalist D. the capitalist 22. The great political and social events in the English society of neoclassical period were the following EXCEPT ______. A. the Restoration of King Charles II in 1660 B. the Great Plague of 1665 C. the Great London Fire in 1666 D. the Wars of Roses in 1689 23. With the scarlet letter A as the biggest symbol of all, ______ proves himself to be one of the best symbolists. A. Hawthorne B. Dreiser C. James D. Faulkner 24. The author of Leaves of Grass , a giant of American letters, is ______. A. Faulkner B. Dreiser C. James D. Whitman 25. In Tender is the Night, ______ traces the decline of a young American psychiatrist whose marriage to a beautiful and wealthy patient drains his personal energies and corrodes his professional career. A. Dreiser B. Faulkner C. Fitzgerald D. Jack London 26. Melville is best known as the author of his mighty book, ________, which is one of the world’ s greatest masterpieces. A. Song of Myself B. Moby Dick C. The Marble Faun D. Mosses from an Old Manse 27. The theme of Henry James’ essay â€Å"______† clearly indicates that the aim of the novel is to present life, so it is not surprising to find in his writings human experiences explored in every possible form. A. The American B. The Europeans C. The Art of Fiction D. The Golden Bowl 28. During WWI, ______ served as an honorable junior officer in the American Red Cross Ambulance Corps and in 1918 was severely wounded in both legs. A. Anderson B. Faulkner C. Hemingway D. Dreiser 29. In order to protest against America’ s failure to join England in WWI, ______ became a naturalized British citizen in 1915. A. William Faulkner B. Henry James C. Earnest Hemingway D. Ezra Pound 30. Robert Frost described ______as â€Å"a book of people,† which shows a brilliant insight into New England character and the background that formed it. A. North of Boston B. A Boy’s Will C. A Witness Tree D. A Further Range 31. We can easily find in Dreiser’ s fiction a world of jungle, and ______ found expression in almost every book he wrote. A. naturalism B. romanticism C. transcendentalism D. cubism 32. As an active participant of his age, Fitzgerald is often acclaimed literary spokesman of the ______. A. Jazz Age B. Age of Reason C. Lost Generation D. Beat Generation 33. From the first novel Sister Carrie on, Dreiser set himself to project the American values for what he had found them to be: ______ to the core. A. altruistic B. political C. religious D. materialistic 34. The 20th -century stream- of- consciousness technique was frequently and skillfully used by ______ to emphasize the reactions and inner musings of the narrator. A. Hemingway B. Frost C. Faulkner D. Whitman 35. With the help of his friends Phil Stone and Sherwood Anderson, ______ published a volume of poetry The Marble Faun and his first novel Soldiers’ Pay. A. Faulkner B. Hemingway C. Ezra Pound D. Fitzgerald 36. The Sun Also Rises casts light on a whole generation after WWI and the effects of the war by way of a vivid portrait of â€Å"______. † A. the Beat Generation B. the Lost Generation C. the Babybooming Age D. the Jazz Age 37. Within her little lyrics Dickinson addresses those issues that concern ______, which include religion, death, immorality, love and nature. A. the whole human beings B. the frontiers C. the African Americans D. her relatives 38. H. L. Mencken, a famous American critic, considered ______ â€Å"the true father of our national literature. † A. Hamlin Garland B. Joseph Kirkland C. Mark Twain D. Henry James 39. In his poetry, Whitman shows concern for ______ and the burgeoning life of cities. A. the colonists B. the capitalists C. the whole hard -working people D. the intellectuals 40. In 1837, ______ published Twice Told Tales, a collection of short stories which attracted critical attention. A. Emerson B. Melville C. Whitman D. Hawthorne 21. The work ________ by William Blake is a lovely volume of poems, presenting a happy world, though not without its evils and sufferings. A. Songs of Innocence B. Songs of Experience C. Poetical Sketches D. Lyrical Ballads 22. The plays known as â€Å"the Lawrence trilogy† are all the following EXCEPT ________. A. A Collier’ s Friday Night B. Lady Chatterley’ s Lover C. The Daughter in Law D. The Widowing of Mrs. Holroyed 23. Greatly and permanently affected by the ________ experiences, Hemingway formed his own writing style, together with his theme and hero. A. mining B. farming C. war D. sailing 24. â€Å"The dignity of movement of an iceberg is due to only one -eighth of it being above water. † This â€Å"iceberg† analogy about prose style was put forward by ________. A. William Faulkner B. Henry James C. Ernest Hemingway D. F ·Scott Fitzgerald. 25. In Go Down, Moses, ________ illuminates the problem of black and white in Southern society as a close- knit destiny of blood brotherhood. A. William Faulkner B. Jack London C. Herman Melville D. Nathaniel Hawthorne 26. In Death in the Afternoon ________ presents his philosophy about life and death through the depiction of the bullfight as a kind of microcosmic tragedy. A. William Faulkner B. Jack London C. Ernest Hemingway D. Mark Twain 27. William Faulkner once said that ________ is a story of â€Å"lost innocence,† which proves itself to be an intensification of the theme of imprisonment in the past. A. The Great Gatsby B. The Sound and the Fury C. Absalom, Absalom! D. Go Down, Moses 28. Walt Whitman believed, by means of â€Å"________,† he has turned poetry into an open field, an area of vital possibility where the reader can allow his own imagination to play. A. free verse B. strict verse C. regular rhyming D. standardized rhyming 29. Herman Melville’s second famous work, ________, was not published until 1924, 33 years after his death. A. Pierre B. Redburn C. Moby-Dick D. Billy Budd 30. In 1920, ________ published his first novel This Side of Paradise which was, to some extent, his own story. A. F ·Scott Fitzgerald B. Ernest Hemingway C. William Faulkner D. Emily Dickinson 31. Unlike his contemporaries in the early 20th century, ________ did not break up with the poetic tradition nor made any experiment on form. A. Walt Whitman B. Robert Frost C. Ezra Pound D. T. S. Eliot 32. While Mark Twain seemed to have paid more attention to the â€Å"life† of the Americans, ________ had apparently laid a greater emphasis on the â€Å"inner world† of man. A. William Howells B. Henry James C. Bret Harte D. Hamlin Garland 33. At the age of eighty -seven, ________ read his poetry at the inauguration of President John F. Kennedy in 1961. A. Robert Frost B. Walt Whitman C. Ezra Pound D. T. S. Eliot 34. Of all Herman Melville’s sea adventure stories, ________ proves to be the best. A. Typee B. Redburn C. Moby – DickD. Omoo 35. Man is a â€Å"victim of forces over which he has no control. † This is a notion held strongly by ________. A. Robert Frost B. Theodore Dreiser C. Henry James D. Hamlin Garland 36. With the publication of ________, Theodore Dreiser was launching himself upon a long career that would ultimately make him one of the most significant American writers of the school later known as literary naturalism. A. Sister Carrie B. The Titan C. An American Tragedy D. The Stoic 37. Nathaniel Hawthorne was affected by ________’s transcendentalist theory and struck up a very intimate relationship with him. A. H. W. Longfellow B. Walt Whitman C. R. W. Emerson D. Washington Irving 38. Among the following writers ________ is generally regarded as the forerunner of the 20th -century â€Å"stream of consciousness† novels and the founder of psychological realism. A. T. S. Eliot B. James Joyce C. William Faulkner D. Henry James 39. Walt Whitman wrote down a great many poems to air his sorrow for the death of President ______, and one of the famous is â€Å"When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’ d. † A. Washington B. Lincoln C. Franklin D. Kennedy 40. The Marble Faun by Nathaniel Hawthorne, a romance set in______, is concerned about the dark aberrations of the human spirit. A. France B. Spain C. England D. Italy [pic] [pic] [pic] [pic] [pic] [pic]

Modernization theory and marxists understandings and interpretive theories

Modernization theory and marxists understandings and interpretive theories The term development has been one of the main themes in contemporary educational discourses. In order to materialize this discourse in action, various theories and philosophies have emerged. Modernization theory, Marxists philosophy and various forms of interpretive theories are some of the examples of those emergences. Each theory and philosophy mentioned above has its own way of defining development but the ultimate target of all these theories is the same, and that is to guide society into the path of development. It is into this context that I would review modernization theory, Marxists understandings and interpretive theories and at the same time would explore their premises and inquiry processes. Based on those understandings I would develop an educational plan, which would help address the need of impoverished children of different caste, ethnicity and religious orientations. Let me begin with modernization theory. This theory perceives development in a linear form. In this linearity, developed societies sit at the top of the line while the least developed sit at the bottom. The whole notion of modernization theory thus is to find ways on how the least developed society can frog leap itself from the bottom position to the top position. Emerged in Europe in the 17th century, this theory often sees traditions as obstacles to economic growth. In doing so, this theory attempts to identify the social variables, which contribute to social progress and development of societies, and seeks to explain the process of social evolution. In other words, modernization is a process of socio-cultural transformation that brings changes in sectors like politics, culture, economics, society, and so on. As stated earlier, modernization is a transformation process. Supporting this statement, Zhang Thomas (1994) state that during this process workplace shifts from home to the factory (industrialization), people move from farms into cities where jobs are available (urbanization) and large scale formal organizations emerge (bureaucratization). Apart, this process of change also involves changes in norms, values, institutions and structures. However, in between these transformation processes there are certain premises through which this theory stands its arguments. These premises meanwhile are mostly related to political, cultural, economics and social dimensions of modernization. Democratic restructuring of the society is the major premise of the political dimension of modernization. In fact, it believes in the power of the people and voices the concerns of the people. Saying so, it advocates the democratic notion of politics whereby everyone has the freedom to voice their concerns not like the political structure of non-democratic states where there is less freedom of such kind. This view of modernization argues that human agents are responsible for shaping and controlling the development and the altered opportunities in the society. However, this dimension of modernization resides on three sub premises. First, it assumes that vertical accountability in the society is essential. The fulfillment of this premise, according to modernization theory would allow citizens to choose their political leaders through elections and at the same time participate in various political activities. In the words of Sen (2007) this premise brings political freedom in the societ y, which then brings other forms of freedoms as well. Second, political restructuring needs horizontal accountability in the society. This premise believes that democracy would allow the decentralization and devolution of power to the lower level. The fulfillment of this premise, according to modernization theory would prioritize local knowledge and understanding in every aspects of the society. Third, political restructuring rests on societal accountability as well. In saying so, this premise states that political restructuring permits civic associations, other I/NGOs and an independent mass media to watchdog and monitor the actions of the state. All these premises have one thing in common and that is the fact that it puts people on top of the structure or system. In other words, the major inquiry process of this form of modernization rests on the fact that people believed democratic process because it guarantees inclusiveness of all forms in every aspects of the society. Sen (Ibid ) boosted this inquiry process by claiming that political freedom brings human and political rights, social opportunities, transparency guarantees and protective security. The rights-based approach to development, at the same time focused on participation and accountability as two major elements that would be essential for democratic reforms in the society. All these premises and inquiry processes state that democracy is the crowning achievement of a long process of modernization (Source). In Nepalese politics thought, these premises and inquiry processes have had both positive and negative impacts. The restoration of multi-party democracy in 1990 BS is an example of the successful universal democratization process in Nepal. The inclusion of various forms of acts and rights is also a direct fruits of the modernization process. Mass consciousness has grown about universal concepts like good governance, popular participation, civil society and so on. The exposure of the Nepalese people to the outside world has also brought important changes in peoples life style including political life. However, modernization has also brought negative impacts in Nepalese political system. The resentful socio-cultural factors like caste and class and ethnic minorities have become stronger. The state has diverted its attention and service towards the protection of the interests of the donor-financed projects. The international donor organizations like World Bank and the International Mone tary Fund has interfered in the economic, political, social and military life of the country. Modernization has also caused a progressive erosion of the ideology of major political parties of Nepal, which has brought them to more or less common front. With the process of democratic restructuring, the decision making power of the government has gradually shifted to international institutions like Multi National Companies and international donor agencies. All these impacts suggest that a) modernization works effectively in a politically stable nation b) modernization supports developed nations rather than the least-developed nations c) the term modernization has become equivalent with westernization and d) modernization has made the political system of the least developed countries a donor driven. Like political restructuring, economic restructuring is also one of the major premises of modernization theory. In saying so, modernization theory rests on three sub premises of economic restructuration and they are policies of economic liberalization, globalization and privatization. Resources are available in all parts of the country and hence there shouldnt be any barriers to the transaction of resources in and outside the country is the major reason why modernization theory premises economic liberalization as one of the keys to development. In doing so, modernization theory advocated laissez faire economy and inquired that less government restriction on economy is an efficient way of encouraging development in the society. The state, at the same time inquired that lesser intervention in economic activities would enable the country to prioritize its activities in sectors like education, health and national security. Apart from liberalization policy, modernization theory also resid es on private mode of economic transactions. In other words, modernization theory presumes that private sectors have better managerial and profit-earning skills in compared to public enterprises that have less skill of those types. In saying so, this premise inquired that private sector through the use of technologies and various capitals manage the economic transactions very efficiently. Lastly, the idea that the existing capital, technology, labor, raw materials, information and transportation, distribution and marketing are integrated and/or interdependent on a global scale is the major premise through which economic globalization equips the development of countries. In this scenario, modernization theory inquired that free mobility of labor takes place amongst the nations. In fact this theory inquired that information, economy, technology and ideas are beyond the control of national government and hence stated that internationally globalized economy is one of the main sources th rough which those limitations could be fulfilled. Adding the political dimension of modernization into the economic dimension of this theory, Feng (2003) states that democracy along with policies of liberalization, globalization and privatization are keys to economic and social development because it allows policy certainty, political stability, the establishment and enforcement of rules that protect property rights, the promotion of education, the ability to promote private capital, and the reduction of inequality. The economic dimension of modernization has also provided both positive and negative impacts in Nepal. The abolition of licensing requirements for industrial investment, opening of the infrastructure, education and health sectors to the private sector and liberalization of convertible currency transactions are some of the few success stories from Nepal (Acharya, 2005). However, the depreciation of Nepalese rupee by two and half times against the American dollar and other convertible currencies between 1984/85 and 1995/96 can be considered as one of the negative impacts of modernization in Nepal (Ibid). The increasing number of imports in compared to exports can also be classified under the negative impacts of modernization in Nepal. The increasing number of absolute and relative poor from 5.3 million in 1984/85 to 8.8 million in 1995/96 is another example which illustrates that modernization has not been able to address the poverty issue. Unfortunately, distribution of income has bec ome more skewed with fewer numbers of people earning more and vice versa. All these examples suggest that modernization has a) enabled free movement of labor and capital in and outside the country; as a result Nepalese market has been penetrated by capitals and labor from neighboring countries with very little gains for the mass of the population b) created an environment where minority benefitted the most c) has disrupted traditional livelihood patterns without creating alternative channels of employment for the masses. Social and cultural restructuring are two remaining premises of modernization theory. The previously stated dimensions of modernization saw political and trade ties as major premises while social and cultural dimension of modernization valued shared life, shared clothing styles and mass media as major premises of development. This idea got lots of boost when Parsons (date) stated that maintaining traditions for traditions sake is not good for society and hence societies should be open to change and oppose the reactionary forces that restrict the development of the society. This statement from Parsons is another important premise upon which modernization rests upon. In addition, the idea that political and economic restructuring would enable and encourage indigenous peoples society, culture and language remained as one of the major premises of this dimension of modernization theory. Although there have been many claims that modernization destructs cultural and social identity, Tomlins on (2003) presumes that modernization in fact resists the centrifugal force of cultural and social capitalist globalization but at the same time allows pluralistic visions on other cultures. This understanding inquires three facts about cultural and social dimensions of modernization. First, the regulatory and socializing institution of the state, in particular, the law, the education system and the media always ensure that nation doesnt loose its cultural and social identity. Second, modernization inquires the feeling of nationalism in the country, the feeling, which Billig (1995) terms as banal nationalism that continuously flags the sense of national belongings in the country, particularly through media discourse. Third, modernity institutionalizes and regulates cultural practices, by which we imagine attachment and belonging to a place or a community. Favoring this statement, Tomlinson (2003) argues that modernization inquires identity in the cases where there were no identity i n previous times and even if there were identities, modernization institutionalizes and regulates those identities. Much like the political and economic dimensions of modernization, social and cultural dimensions also had both positive and negative impacts in Nepalese society. The increasing use of science and technology, better health care system, transportation and communication facilities, expansion of education to all and imports of foreign consumer products are some of the major positive impacts that have taken place in Nepal after the modernization era. However, the ideology that west is the best psyche that is shaping up in least developed countries like ours is arguably the most negative impact of modernization. Similarly, the invasion of western culture in least developed countries like ours is also making people passive; hence they are not interested in the everyday problems but rather are interested in alien music, songs, dance, sports and life styles. In this scenario, we are getting sandwiched in between various cultures. Another notable negative impact is the increasing number of bra in drain and muscle exchange from one country to another. The data from Ministry of Education shows that in an average around 1,000 students apply for no objection letter from the ministry, meaning we are loosing those numbers of students on a day to foreign countries. All these examples state that cultural and social dimensions of modernization has a) out flowed labor and capital from the country b) displaced indigenous language, knowledge and production c) created inappropriate consumption and investment patterns d) developed allied local groups and e) widened elite-mass gap. To summarize, modernization theory believes in modern technology, encourages state and people to break their traditional way of doing works and so on. In doing so they advocated various forms of dimensions, which state needs to address if it is to be modern. The table given below summarizes all these premises and inquiry processes of modernization. Table 1: Dimensions, premises and inquiry processes of modernization Dimensions Premises Inquiry Processes Political Democratic restructuring Important role of human agents Vertical accountability Horizontal accountability Societal accountability People and technology have power to change Freedom is essential Independent mass media is necessary Democracy guarantees inclusiveness of all forms Economic Liberalization Globalization Privatization Resources are available in all parts of the country and hence no barriers to the transaction of resources Lesser intervention in economic activities by the state Private sectors have better managerial and profit-earning skills Free mobility of labor Information, economy, technology and ideas are beyond the control of national government Socio-cultural Shared life, shared clothing styles and mass media Open to change and oppose the reactionary forces that restrict the development of the society Pluralistic visions on other cultures The regulatory and socializing institution of the state ensure that nation doesnt loose its cultural and social identity Banal nationalism continuously flags the sense of national belongings in the country Cultural practices strengthen the attachment and detachment to a place and community Unlike modernization theory that advocates for capitalistic mode of governance and economy, Marx and Marxists propose the opposite. In fact, Marxists believe that capitalism, in due time falter; as a result socialist mode of governance and economy succeeds capitalism. In this regard, Marxism is the antithesis of capitalism, the antithesis that focuses on building a system where state controls the means of production, distribution and exchange. Inspired by the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Angels, Marxism is a radical political philosophy that views world from economic and sociologist lenses. In so doing, Marxism acknowledges that society comprises various classes of people and that capitalistic mode of economy further deepens this class structure by creating a gap between those haves and have-nots. In other words, Marxism believes that capitalism forms two major economic classes in the society; one is bourgeoisie that holds major forms of productions and possess most of the resources of the society while the other is proletariat that sells labor to bourgeoisie and virtually suffer from hand to mouth problem all the time. To make matter worse, the above stated dimensions of modernization theory, which Marxism believes are an essential element of capitalism, further, worsen the imbalances between the economic classes. For example, the political dimension of globalization advocates for lesser intervention of government in e conomic activities but Marxists believe that such action would encourage the growth of bourgeoisie while proletariats would always suffer. Sociologically, Marxism believes that society has a direct relationship with the productive capacity of labor. In other words, the higher the productive capacity of labor, the higher the development of society becomes and vice versa. Capitalism however underestimates this relationship; Marxists believe and claim that capitalism is the main reason behind the sufferings of working class laborers. In this regard, Marx and Marxists propose three main primary aspects in its philosophy a) struggle exists between social classes b) capitalism always exploits and c) proletarian revolution succeeds capitalism. Thus, Marxism is a humanity-centered philosophy. It is also an activist view of looking society. It recognizes the constraints upon human action and also acknowledges that those constraints are the creations of other sets of human beings. In the end, Marx and Marxists believe that socialism replaces capitalism just like the way capitalism replaced feudalism in the past. Underneath Marxism, there are four major premises that shape this philosophy. First, the notion that classes exists in the society; as a result social classes struggle against each other is the main premise of Marxism. Had different classes of people lived together in equal respects, the conflicting scenario wouldnt have happened and Marx philosophy wouldnt have started in the first place. According to this premise, it is the control over factors of production that is partly responsible for creating struggle between classes. In saying so, Marxists believe that foundation of society depends on the productive capacity of society. During time when the productive capacity of society increases the social relations of production and class relations also evolve and hence conflict and struggle start. This evolvement of class struggles according to Marxists; pass through definite stages starting from feudalism to capitalism and ultimately rests into socialism. Unlike capitalism that creates c lass struggles through self-centric activities, socialism according to Marxists, harmonizes the relationships between various classes as it allows collective social earning and redistributing of income to all. In this regard, socialistic movement is an essential element for Marx and Marxism, which according to them is the only solution for neutralizing the struggle between classes. Labor is the most important factor of production, which capitalism always undermines is the second premise of Marx and Marxism. Marx, in his philosophy discusses about necessary labor and surplus labor and argues that capitalism pays labor only the amount of wages that is sufficient enough for them to maintain their livelihood. This according to Marx and Marxism is the wages for necessary labor but argues that labors produce far more than they get paid, which Marx and Marxists call as extra earnings through surplus labor that capitalism do not share with the labors. Despite these exploitations, Marx and Marxists premise that laborers keep on competing with each other thus allowing capitalists to further exploit them and as a result laborers always lay at the bottom of a pyramidal authority structure. It is through this premise, the whole philosophy of Marx and Marxism believe that proletariat revolution is necessary and is capable enough to let laborers fight, defend and improve the position of their status at work. Only when the laborers or proletariat become the ruling class, the centralization of all instruments of production is possible, which then allows for acceleration of production, Marx and Marxists argue in support of this premise. The conception that private ownership of property increases inequality is the third premise of Marx and Marxism. Had there been a system where society owns all the means of production, the income inequality would not have happened and also the need for proletariat revolution would not have felt, Marx and Marxists believe. Marx Weber, one of the Marxists further built this premise stating that human beings earn cultural and religious capitals based on what sort of society and culture they get exposed into. In this scenario, if human beings get accustomed to capitalistic mode of owning property, Marx and Marxists believe that proletariats would always be in the state of misery. The only solution however, according to Marx and Marxists is the building up of socialist design of owning property where society would be the caretaker of all those property. Success in doing so means the minimization of frustration and antagonism on the part of people, Marx and Marxists believe. Abolition of t he right of inheritance, centralization of communication and transportation, universal and equal obligation to work, abolition of factory work for children, and expropriation of landed property are some of the ways through which Marx and Marxists argue that private ownership of property can be discouraged. Finally, the fourth major premise of Marx and Marxism is related to the relationship between base and superstructures, the two economic concepts that Marx and Marxism believe are not strictly causal but are reciprocal. Base, according to this premise are factors like employer-employee working conditions, the technical division of labor and property relations that comprehend the relations of production and it is on the basis of those bases people enter to produce the necessities and amenities of life. Superstructure meanwhile is the set of socio-psychological feedback loops that maintain a coherent and meaningful structure in a given society. Culture, religion, institutions, power structures, roles and rituals of the society are some of the examples of superstructures. Marx and Marxists thus believe that base and superstructures exist in the society and human beings, through these two factors build definite forms of their own consciousness. In this regard, this premise states that soc ial existence determines the consciousness of human beings not the other way around. Due time however, Marx and Marxists believe that conflict is likely to occur between base and superstructures, which then brings an era of social revolution. Just like other premises, which assume that social revolution ultimately brings socialism this premise also does the same. Already stated above, Marx and Marxism is a radical political philosophy. In this regard, it uses process of inquiry to arrive at hypotheses and theories about a domain of empirical phenomena. In so doing, this process also provides justification for the proposed hypotheses and theories as well. Also called as methodology in purely research terms, it allows us to recognize the systems, structures, and causal processes that are embedded in the social world, the world that gives rise to relations of power, domination, exploitation and resistance. Below given are some of the ways through which Marx and Marxists have analyzed their inquiry processes. First, Marxism uses material dialectics as an inquiry process in looking at the society. Materially, it focuses on the forces and relations of production, and at the same time postulates that technology and power are fundamental with regards to other social formations such as literature, culture and law. This process of inquiry is sensitive to the workings of ideology and false consciousness in our understandings of the social institutions within which we live, particularly the understanding of capitalism. It also pays special interest, and offers special concern, to the perspectives of the under classes at any given time in history. Likewise, Marx and Marxists by discussing ideas and opinions logically inquire that there are contradictions in historical processes and as a result change is necessary. Also called as dialectics, this inquiry process highlights the high-level hypothesis that capitalism is solely responsible for creating gaps between various classes of people and hence a s written earlier, change is necessary and inevitable. The rational choice approach is another inquiry process that Marx and Marxists often use in their philosophy. This approach postulates the fact that an individual is rational enough to think and act in regards to what is best and what is worst for them. Through this approach, Marx and Marxists explained the tools of political economy, and demonstrated the laws of capitalism. Marxs argument for the falling rate of profit, concerning the contradiction between the individual capitalists interests and the interests of the class of capitalists as a whole is an example of rational choice approach. Realist empiricism, according to Little (n.d) is the main epistemological inquiry process of Marx and Marxists. Through this inquiry process, Marx and Marxists arrive to the conclusion that scientific knowledge provides statements about unobservable structures that are approximately true, and that the basis of evaluation of such hypotheses is through appropriate use of empirical methods such as observation, experimentation, and historical inquiry. In this regard, their inquiry process of knowing the truth is premised on the notion that well-founded beliefs about the social world can be arrived on the basis of empirical methods and theoretical reasoning. The whole notion of class struggles and proletariat revolution are examples of such inquiry process where Marx and Marxists derive to the conclusion based on what they observe, what they experiment and what they historically inquire. In regards to metaphysical inquiry process of society and historical processes, Marx and Marxism have presupposes numerous assumptions. First, they inquire that social world is a causal order; in research terms social world bears a cause and effect relationship. The premise that class exists and as a result conflict arises is based on cause and effect inquiry process. Second, social structures have properties and causal characteristics. Third, individual constitute social structures through their actions and choices. Fourth, modes of production consist of sets of forces and relations of production. The idea of alienation, super structures and capitalistic design of social system are examples of this inquiry process. Ontologically, Marx and Marxism inquire that some individuals and groups control labor time of others and derive benefit from their labor without compensation. In saying so, this inquiry process argues that individuals have consciousness and freedom, but they find themselves always within the context of individuals and ideas that, in turn structure their understandings of the relations that govern them. The labor theory of value, and the theory of surplus value provide an analytical framework within which to theorize about exploitation. Marxs concept of alienation, fetishism and mystification are also foundation in his social ontology. The above given inquiry process clearly shows that Marx always tried to describe and explain the phenomena of capitalism based on a family of hypotheses, feelings, and ontological commitments. In this sense, it could be said that Marx and Marxism do offer some social science inquiry process but do not offer distinctively. Whatever process they have inquired, it provides a substantive contribution to social science, in the form of a series of descriptive and theoretical insights, particularly about the institutional anatomy and dynamics of capitalism and social behavior. The table given below summarizes the above-mentioned inquiry process. Table 2: Inquiry processes of Marx and Marxism Inquiry Types Inquiry Process Dialectical materials Focuses on the forces and relations of production Postulates that technology and power are fundamental with regards to literature, culture and law Pays special interest, and offers special concern, to the perspectives of the under classes Contradictions in historical processes Rational choice Individual is rational enough to think and act Through this approach, Marx and Marxists explained the tools of political economy, and demonstrated the laws of capitalism Realist empiricism (Epistemology) Scientific knowledge provides statements about unobservable structures that are approximately true Well-founded beliefs about the social world can be arrived on the basis of empirical methods and theoretical reasoning Metaphysics Social world is a causal order Social structures have properties and causal characteristics Individual constitute social structures through their actions and choices Modes of production consist of sets of forces and relations of production Ontology Individuals and groups control labor time of others and derive benefit from their labor without compensation Individuals have consciousness and freedom, but they find themselves always within the context of individuals and ideas Structural theories stated above focus on the situation in which people act. The proletariat revolution as a result of bourgeoisie exploitation is an example of structural theory where Marxists notion of exploitation is the situation and revolution is the act. The interpretive theories see human behavior as the outcome of the subjective interpretation of the environment. In other words, interpretive theories gains knowledge from somebody elses point of view and appreciates the cultural and social factors that may have influenced their outlook. Interpretive theories are important in this contemporary world, Bevir and Rhodes (n.d) argue because until and unless one doesnt understand human affairs properly, one cannot grasp the relevant meaning of anything. In this regard, it could be said that interpretive theorists acknowledge that in order to understand actions, practices and institutions, one need to grasp the meanings, beliefs and preferences of the people, society and other instit utions. In other words, exploration of ideas and knowledge through peoples lenses is the main impulse of interpretive theorists. As a result, various forms of interpretive inquiries have em

Abortion-An Ultra-Conservative View :: essays research papers

My best friend is a 26-year-old woman in Medical School at the University of South Florida who has had two abortions. Through each one, I have stood by her as a faithful and loyal friend. This is not something she wishes everyone to know, but this woman is not bashful about it if asked. As a matter of fact, she has discussed it several times in front of me. In these cases, her birth control failed, and she aborted her unborn children early in the pregnancy. Simply, she made the decision to abort because she just wasn’t ready. Honestly, being a successful medical student, would you blame her? I found myself beginning to judge her after twenty years of friendship, and I think, she would not be pleased with my judgment. But, after wondering what I would do in her shoes, I have asked myself, â€Å"Is abortion justified†? My view, No. Abortion is immoral in every circumstance, which makes me an ultra-conservative person. Before I begin to discuss Marry Ann Warrens’ article, â€Å"Abortion is Morally Permissible†, I wish to define the different views of abortion. The first view of abortion is a called, â€Å"Ultra-Conservative†, which state regardless of the reason, having an abortion is immoral. This, as I stated in my introductory paragraph, is my personal view of abortion. The second view is referred to as, â€Å"Moderate-Conservative†, which states that abortion is permissible in some instances, but, overall, not moral in others. In society, many people believe this view to be accurate. But, who can judge what is permissible or not? The third view is the â€Å"Ultra-Liberal position†, which is the view that Mary Ann Warren wishes to provide support for in her article, â€Å"Abortion is Morally Permissible.† This position states that abortion is fine in all instances, regardless of the circumstances. Although many people have different views, Mary Ann Warren does hold the view of Ultra-Liberal. In Warrens’ article, she believes that a child is not a â€Å"person†. She believes that before the fetus reaches a certain point in the mothers’ pregnancy, the child cannot understand the concept behind abortion. Warren (2000) mentions in her article the following about the development of a fetus:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"In the ways that matter, from a moral point of view, human fetuses are very unlike human persons, particularly in the early months of development.†Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Generally, Warren defines that the forming of a fetus into a â€Å"person† can only come after the first trimester.

Lord of the Flies Essay

The definition of an allegory is a â€Å"symbolic expression of meaning in story† (world English Dictionary). In the novel, The Lord of the Flies, written by William Golding, is about a group of young British boys who get stranded on an island and have to survive themselves with no help from the outside world. This novel can be viewed as an allegory in three different ways, first as a political allegory, next as a psychological allegory and finally as a religious allegory. The Lord of the Flies can first be viewed as a political allegory. This is in comparison to World War II. At this time the world was divided into parts, the free world and the Soviet Union. In this novel it is just like how the island divided into two groups, Jack’s group and Ralph’s group. After the Cold War, the world was in fear of a nuclear destruction of the world. In The Lord of the Flies the world is also in fear of total destruction. In conclusion this novel could be used to compare wars or political separation with the outside world beyond the island the young British boys on. Second, this novel is a psychological allegory. Different characters were used to represent the different parts of the human psyche. Jack is used to represent the id, Piggy the superego and Ralph is the ego. As the id, Jack works to create his natural instinct. While Piggy, representing the superego, tries to control Jacks impulsive behavior his control back fires. Throughout the story, Piggy tries to keep peace between Jack and Ralph. Lastly, The Lord of the Flies, can be viewed as a religious allegory representing the Garden of Eden. The island was a perfectly livable island. It had food, warm weather, and a source of water. The snake in the Garden that lures Adam and Eve to eat the apple is just like the beastie who tricks the other boys to do what they aren’t supposed to do. While Piggy, his death, and the parachutist represent the fall mankind. Plus, Simon is kind of like a Christ figure who sacrifices himself to save the others. In conclusion, the book The Lord of the Flies is jam-packed with allegories. Whether it’s a political, psychological or religious allegory, the novel has far too many of examples to name them all.

Money Transfer in Ghana Case Study

The introduction of mobile money service is taking place in isolation but in parallel with the advent and expansion of other financial electronic payments services. One of these is E-Zwich, an electronic platform that enables the loading and spending of electronic cash and also allows the settlement of inter-bank claims in addition to online transactions. Others are being made available over the Internet and through SMS-text messages. The government regards these services as banking. They are strictly regulated and licensed by the Central Bank- Bank of Ghana under its branchless banking policy. Both MTN and ZAIN SIM cards are enabled to utilize the service but each new subscriber needs to register for the service at before it is activated. Upon activation, the user is provided with a secure electronic â€Å"wallet† where funds can be disbursed or uploaded. The users can either exchange electronic money for physical cash (cash out) at shops, partner banks and accredited agents or make use of it in making purchases or transfers. Enabling a Cash Flow to Rural Areas In general, the most popular mobile money service is money transfer. The trend is for users in urban areas to transfer funds to recipients in rural areas. Traditionally in Ghana, city dwellers often send money to members of their extended family living in rural areas. Other typical services include the purchase of mobile phone airtime, goods and services through electronic transfer of money from user's wallet to the merchant's account. Commenting on money transfer via mobile phones, Carl NiikoiAshie, an mcommerce (mobile commerce) specialist at Zain who works on ZAP, said: â€Å"The customers can ‘cash in' by loading money onto their ZAP wallet, then send the money to someone else on their phone in a simple process. The person receiving the money can ‘cash out' by going to any of our outlets and exchanging the evalue for physical cash. We're seeing tremendous growth in the service across the country, with more cash-in done in the major cities while cash-outs are seen predominantly in the smaller towns. † Ashie sees a lot of evidence that his product is reaching Ghana's unbanked. â€Å"Users do not need to have a bank account to use the service. Currently, there are a lot of monetary transactions that take place outside the confines of the banks and it will take a product like ZAP to fill the void while providing a secure, convenient and trustworthy channel of transaction,† said Ashie. â€Å"Some customers have also requested products that will allow them to use their ZAP wallets for savings and hence enjoy interest on their savings, just as pertains in the traditional bank setting. † Today, consumers have a variety of ways to send and receive funds or money transfers. Although using cash to send a money transfer is the most popular method for most people, more and more people want additional options: to send and/or receive funds on the internet, over the phone, and now, on their mobile phones. Mobile money transfer is simply another way to send money. It is a transfer of money to a receiver in which the funds are deposited into a mobile or â€Å"virtual† wallet. As the number of mobile phone subscribers in Ghana increases, so does the market for mobile money services. The majority of Ghanaians lack any formal bank account. mobile money could change the shape of financial transactions in the country. An estimated 80 percent of Ghanaians are â€Å"unbanked† – meaning they conduct their transactions outside the banking sector with no access to financial services. Products like â€Å"mobile money,† that enable safe and secure money transfers without the use of a bank account, could have a major impact on this unserved segment of the population. Mobile money gives anyone with a mobile phone the ability to transfer money, make cash payments and conduct other financial transactions over the phone. Mobile money is a relatively new phenomenon in Ghana. It was first introduced by the telecom company MTN some years ago. MTN Mobile Money operates in partnership with nine banks. Currently, more than 2 million Ghanaians are registered as active users. MTN expects this number to grow as a result of the resources they have committed to educating subscribers about switching from the traditional mode of cash payments to electronic payments. Earlier this year, Zain became the second mobile operator to provide mobile money services through the introduction of ZAP, working with three banks. The coverage and accessibility that mobile services provide is of increasing interest to the financial services sector. Countries are considering mobile technology to reduce the cost of delivering financial services to clients beyond the reach of traditional financial services. ECONOMIC BENEFITS Mobile money transfer has some socio-economic benefits in Ghana, some these are Firstly Improved Financial Access, consider a situation whereby a given business has to carry out a common payment operation, such as bill payment or funds transfer, and that operation demands transportation with all inconveniences attached to it. If the same transportation cost were paid to a service that would effect the same payment on behalf of the company over the mobile phone instead, this more convenient method brings about saving time and energy for other activities, in so doing increasing productivity by performing two tasks instead of one at the end of the day. It appears, therefore, that using your mobile phone to make payments represents to a very large extent convenience taken to another level. By exploiting the extensive reach of mobile networks, the mobile industry has the opportunity to complement and extend remittance channels, make transferring money significantly more convenient and also bring many people into the formal banking system. With more than 15,000,000 mobile phone subscribers in Ghana, the potential market for these new services is significant. Mobile money presents certain advantages for Ghanaians without access to banks. Penetration of mobile services across the world is increasing rapidly. In 1990 there were just over 11m mobile phone users worldwide. Today, over 3 billion consumers own mobile phones. At the same time, the possibility to technically integrate mobile and financial services is becoming increasingly apparent. A recent survey conducted by Edgar Dunn & Company and the GSM Association (GSMA) predicts that, given an improved regulatory environment, in 2012 7% of the subscriber base in developed countries and 4% in developing countries will initiate at least one cross-border remittance. This equates to just over 248 million consumers in 2012 using mobile money transfer services. Financial access for the poor is still an issue in many developing countries. There are currently approximately only 0. 5 million bank branches globally with only 1. 4 million ATM's compared to over 3 billion mobile customers worldwide. The mobile device has the potential to extend access to financial services for the banked, but also for the under-served and unbanked parts of the population. This improved, financial access can be achieved by exploiting the extensive reach of mobile networks. Traditional remittance channels can be complemented and extended with mobile money transfer services. Thus making mobile money transfers significantly more convenient, bringing many remittances from informal channels into the formal system. Secondly it reduces the transaction cost of money transfers. Bank transfers and specialist remittance companies can be prohibitively expensive for small denomination transfers, limiting the ability of individual workers to distribute funds to a larger number of people and penalizing those sending small amounts. Retail premises and staff costs increase overheads, leading to high commissions, especially for remittances below ghc100. It drastically cuts down the cost of providing service to customers. A study carried out proved that there is a substantial cut in customer care cost. This results from the fact that mobile money transfer eliminates the need for costly call centers and frees up customer service help desk. In addition real-time information is provided to customers and employees. Using a mobile platform such as SMS fro simple task as payment reminders and funds transfer can reduce the burden on IT and personal resources. This has also been found to reduce cost and errors associated with paper-base operations. Significant reduction in operational costs means additional revenues can be invested in other areas of the business. Mobile technology can lower the cost of remittances as it removes the need for physical points of presence and ensures a timely and secure method of transaction. This concept of ‘mobile money' is extremely attractive to low income users in particular Mobile money transfer services can make remittances more affordable. Mobile technology lowers the cost of remittances as it removes the need for physical points of presence by banks and ensures a timely and secure method of transaction. This concept of ‘mobile money' is extremely attractive to low income users in particular. It reduces the transaction costs of financial services for the poor, especially those in rural areas where financial services seldom exist. Mobile money saves the cost of travel and time spent visiting the nearest town to access financial services. As noted in AudienceScapes research, mobile money provides people with a way to transfer money safely and keep (or even increase) their savings. From the customers’ perspective, mobile banking is relatively easy to use, and this is another advantage compared to traditional means of banking as well as electronic banking, given the fact that text messaging has become a common application of mobile phones. Thirdly mobile money transfers drive growth and development. Mobile money has the potential to create jobs directly through hiring in the mobile phone companies, partner banks and the more than 4,000 merchants involved in Ghana's mobile money system. Key partners in the provision of mobile money services include commercial banks, mobile phone operator's shops, distributor shops and accredited agents. Jobs may be created indirectly as mobile money contributes to growth in Ghana's business and trade. If deployed successfully, mobile money could help individuals harness funds outside the banking system and channel them into the formal financial sector, thus making it easier to gather funds for investments. Not surprisingly, the general manager of Mobile Money-MTN, Bruno Akpaka, sees many benefits for Ghana as it continues adopting this service. Akpaka believes mobile money will â€Å"help trade activities within the country and foster strong business partnerships. † â€Å"The creation of wide merchant footprints in places where traditional banks cannot go also contributes to bringing people into this new model of financial transactions,† said Akpaka. â€Å"MTN Mobile Money is bridging this existing huge gap between the unbanked and the financial sector. † Mobile-financial convergence creates socio-economic benefits. It is widely accepted, that increased access to mobile telephony in developing countries brings considerable benefits to the economies of the respective countries. It is estimated that an extra 10 mobile phones per 100 people in a typical developing country lead to an extra 0. 89 – 1. 210 percentage points of growth in GDP per person. In addition, remittances are an important engine for growth and development in developing countries. The World Bank estimates that reducing remittance commission charges by 2-5% could increase the flow of formal remittances by 50-70%, boosting local economies. Reducing the cost of sending each individual remittance would encourage the delivery of lower value remittances, at smaller values than today's average transfer of ghc200. Financial regulators have the opportunity to use the development of mobilefinancial convergence to achieve their aims: ? ? ? ? New services offered to consumers, i. e. mobile money transfer services (innovation) Cheaper prices through more efficient use of the mobile infrastructure (competition) Across all consumer groups (banked, under-banked, unbanked) Transition remittances from informal to formal remittance channels (more visibility of money flows) Both the mobile and the financial industry benefit from this opportunity to cooperate in new ways providing innovative services to an increased customer base. The challenges facing the market. Access Access to the facilities to receive money is often limited, particularly for the poorest people in more rural areas where the banking sector is under represented and a largely cash-based economy exists. There are currently approximately only 0. 5 million bank branches globally with only 1. 4 million ATM's compared to almost 2 billion mobile customers worldwide. Those who would benefit the most are therefore the least likely to benefit from remittances from migrant workers, locked out of their market through their social, economic and geographical position. Cost Bank transfers and specialist remittance companies are prohibitively expensive for small denomination transfers, limiting the ability of individual workers to distribute funds to a larger number of people and penalising the poor who can only afford to send small amounts. Retail premises and staff costs increase overheads, leading to a high fixed commission cost per remittance with industry revenues estimated at an average 15% per transaction, increasing to over 25% for remittances below ghc100. Handset operability There are a large number of different mobile phone devices and it is a big challenge for banks to offer mobile banking solution on any type of device. Some of these devices support Java ME and others support SIM Application Toolkit, a WAP browser, or only SMS. Initial interoperability issues however have been localized, with countries like Ghana using portals like R-World to enable the limitations of low end java based phones, while focus on areas such as South Africa have defaulted to the USSD as a basis of communication achievable with any phone. The desire for interoperability is largely dependent on the banks themselves, where installed applications (Java based or native) provide better security, are easier to use and allow development of more complex capabilities similar to those of internet banking while SMS can provide the basics but becomes difficult to operate with more complex transactions. There is a myth that there is a challenge of interoperability between mobile banking applications due to perceived lack of common technology standards for mobile banking. In practice it is too early in the service lifecycle for interoperability to be addressed within an individual country, as very few countries have more than one mobile banking service provider. In practice, banking interfaces are well defined and money movements between banks follow the IS0-8583 standard. As mobile banking matures, money movements between service providers will naturally adopt the same standards as in the banking world. Security Security of financial transactions, being executed from some remote location and transmission of financial information over the air, are the most complicated challenges that need to be addressed jointly by mobile application developers, wireless network service providers and the banks' IT departments. The following aspects need to be addressed to offer a secure infrastructure for financial transaction over wireless network: 1. Physical part of the hand-held device. If the bank is offering smart-card based security, the physical security of the device is more important. 2. Security of any thick-client application running on the device. In case the device is stolen, the hacker should require at least an ID/Password to access the application. 3. Authentication of the device with service provider before initiating a transaction. This would ensure that unauthorized devices are not connected to perform financial transactions. 4. User ID / Password authenticationof bank’s customer. 5. Encryptionof the data being transmitted over the air. 6. Encryption of the data that will be stored in device for later / off-line analysis by the customer. One-time password(OTPs) are the latest tool used by financial and banking service providers in the fight againstcyber fraud . Instead of relying on traditional memorized passwords, OTPs are requested by consumers each time they want to perform transactions using the online or mobile banking interface. When the request is received the password is sent to the consumer’s phone via SMS. The password is expired once it has been used or once its scheduled life-cycle has expired. Because of the concerns made explicit above, it is extremely important that SMS gateway providers can provide a decent quality of service for banks and financial institutions in regards to SMS services. Therefore, the provision of service level agreements (SLAs) is a requirement for this industry; it is necessary to give the bank customer delivery guarantees of all messages, as well as measurements on he speed of delivery, throughput, etc. SLAs give the service parameters in which a messaging solution is guaranteed to perform. Scalability & Reliability Another challenge for the CIOs and CTOs of the banks is to scale-up the mobile banking infrastructure to handle exponential growth of the customer base. With mobile banking, the customer may be sitting in any part of the world (true anytime, anywhere banking) and hence banks need to ensure that the systems are up and running in a true 24 x 7 fas hion. As customers will find mobile banking more and more useful, their expectations from the solution will increase. Banks unable to meet the performance and reliability expectations may lose customer confidence. There are systems such as Mobile Transaction Platform which allow quick and secure mobile enabling of various banking services. Recently in India there has been a phenomenal growth in the use of Mobile Banking applications, with leading banks adopting Mobile Transaction Platform and the Central Bank publishing guidelines for mobile banking operations. Application distribution Due to the nature of the connectivity between bank and its customers, it would be impractical to expect customers to regularly visit banks or connect to a web site for regular upgrade of their mobile banking application. It will be expected that the mobile application itself check the upgrades and updates and download necessary patches (so called â€Å"Over The Air† updates). However, there could be many issues to implement this approach such as upgrade / synchronization of other dependent components. Conclusion. For customers and businesses in the country, it is a unique platform to bring convenience in financial transactions to customers, an area which before this period had been beyond our domain and reach for those of us in Ghana and most of Africa. For the customer, its time and cost saving elements cannot be over emphasized and the earlier we adopt electronic ways of financial transactions, the better it will be for a whole society that would see a transformation, resulting from the ability to cut down on time lost accessing basic services like funds transfer amongst businesses and individuals.